"The search strategies below are provided as examples of how to structure a search. They are examples only and should not be interpreted as all inclusive, exact or the only way to retrieve information on the subject."
Create a My NCBI account to save searches and customize "filters." Learn more about filters from these articles:
Enhancing search efficiency by means of a search filter for finding all studies on animal experimentation in PubMed.
Lab Anim. 2010 Jul;44(3):170-5. doi: 10.1258/la.2010.009117. Epub 2010 Jun 15.
Hooijmans CR, Tillema A, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M.
Full-text PMC3104815; PMID: 20551243.
A step-by-step guide to systematically identify all relevant animal studies.
Lab Anim. 2012 Jan;46(1):24-31. doi: 10.1258/la.2011.011087. Epub 2011 Oct 28.
Leenaars M, Hooijmans CR, van Veggel N, ter Riet G, Leeflang M, Hooft L, van der Wilt GJ, Tillema A, Ritskes-Hoitinga M.
Full-text PMC3265183; PMID: 22037056.
A search filter for increasing the retrieval of animal studies in Embase.
Lab Anim. 2011 Oct;45(4):268-70. doi: 10.1258/la.2011.011056. Epub 2011 Sep 2.
de Vries RB, Hooijmans CR, Tillema A, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M.
Full-text PMC3175570; PMID: 21890653. (see also updated version)
Below are general subject headings that might help with broad searches.
MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) for MEDLINE:
EMTREE for Embase:
But, in order to perform a comprehensive search, incorporate the below keywords and associated MeSH that help to capture elements of the 3Rs.
| Keywords | Medical Subject Headings for MEDLINE, if available |
|---|---|
| adverse | |
| analgesia OR analgesic OR painkiller OR sedative OR tranquilize OR tranquilizer | Analgesia OR Analgesics OR "Hypnotics and Sedatives" OR Tranquilizing Agents |
| anesthetic OR anasthetic OR anaesthetic | Anesthetics |
| anxiolytic | Anti-Anxiety Agents |
| (enrich OR enrichment) AND (behavioral OR behavioural OR environmental) | |
| euthanasia OR euthanize* | Euthanasia, Animal OR Euthanasia |
| handling OR housing OR caging OR husbandry | Animal Husbandry |
| invasive, non-invasive | Minimally Invasive Surgical Procedures OR Diagnostic Imaging |
| monitoring device* | Telemetry |
| restrain OR immobil* OR restrict | Restraint, Physical OR Immobilization |
| positive reinforce* | Reinforcement, Psychology |
| postoperative OR postsurgery OR postsurgical | Postoperative Period OR Postoperative Complications OR Postoperative Care OR Pain, Postoperative |
| pain OR distress OR welfare | Pain OR Pain Management OR Psychological Distress |
| reduce OR reduction OR refine OR refinement | |
| technique OR method OR procedur* OR assay | |
| train* OR educat* OR teach* OR instruct* | Teaching OR Education OR Computer-Assisted Instruction |
* denotes truncation symbol for keywords, which might differ depending on the database (*, !, $, etc.).
| Keywords | Medical Subject Headings for MEDLINE, if available |
|---|---|
| animal alternative OR animal alternatives | Animal Testing Alternatives |
| artificial | Artificial Intelligence OR Biomimetic Materials |
| cadaver OR cadavers | Cadaver |
| Computer Simulation OR "in silico" | Computer Simulation |
| culture* AND (cell OR tissue OR organ) | Culture Techniques OR Cells, Culture |
| invertebrate* | Invertebrates |
| isolated AND (cell OR tissue OR organ) | |
| mannequin OR manikin | Manikins |
| (model OR modeling OR modelling) AND (cadaveric OR interactive OR mathematical OR statistical OR theoretical) | (Models, Theoretical NOT Disease Models, Animal) |
| plastination OR plastinations | Plastination |
| software | Software |
| video | Videotape Recording OR Video Recording |
| virtual AND (reality OR surgery) | Virtual Reality OR Augmented Reality |
| vitro AND (method OR model OR technique) | In Vitro Techniques |
* denotes truncation symbol, which changes depending on the database (*, !, $, etc.).
|
Replacement Option #1 |
Ovid MEDLINE | NOT (exp Animals/ OR exp Humans/) |
| PubMed MEDLINE | NOT (Animals[Mesh] OR Humans[Mesh]) | |
| Ovid Embase | NOT (exp Animal/ OR exp Human/) | |
| Replacement Option #2 | Ovid MEDLINE | AND (exp Computer Simulation/ OR simulation.ti,ab. OR virtual reality.ti,ab. OR augmented reality.ti,ab. OR exp Cadaver/ OR cadaver.ti,ab. OR Aborted Fetus/ OR aborted fetus.ti,ab. OR exp In Vitro Techniques/ OR vitro.ti,ab. OR exp Cells, Cultured/ OR cultured cells.ti,ab. OR cell culture.ti,ab. OR Manikins/ OR manikins.ti,ab. OR mannequin.ti,ab. OR mannequins.ti,ab. OR Plastination/ OR plastination.ti,ab. OR (exp Models, Theoretical/ NOT exp Disease Models, Animal/)) |
| PubMed MEDLINE | AND (Computer Simulation[Mesh] OR simulation[tiab] OR "virtual reality"[tiab] OR "augmented reality"[tiab] OR Cadaver[Mesh] OR cadaver[tiab] OR Aborted Fetus[Mesh] OR "aborted fetus"[tiab] OR In Vitro Techniques[Mesh] OR vitro[tiab] OR Cells, Cultured[Mesh] OR "cultured cells"[tiab] OR "cell culture"[tiab] OR Manikins[Mesh] OR manikins[tiab] OR mannequin[tiab] OR mannequins[tiab] OR Plastination[Mesh] OR plastination[tiab] OR (Models, Theoretical[Mesh] NOT Disease Models, Animal[Mesh])) | |
| Ovid Embase | (exp Computer Simulation/ OR simulation.ti,ab. OR virtual reality.ti,ab. OR augmented reality.ti,ab. OR exp Cadaver/ OR cadaver.ti,ab. OR Fetus Death/ OR fetus death.ti,ab. OR exp In Vitro Study/ OR vitro.ti,ab. OR exp Cell Culture/ OR cultured cells.ti,ab. OR cell culture.ti,ab. OR exp Manikin/ OR manikins.ti,ab. OR mannequin.ti,ab. OR mannequins.ti,ab. OR Plastination/ OR plastination.ti,ab. OR (exp Model/ NOT exp Animal Model/)) | |
|
Replacement Option #3 |
Ovid MEDLINE | AND (exp Animals/ NOT exp Mammals/) |
| PubMed MEDLINE | AND (Animals[Mesh] NOT Mammals[Mesh]) | |
| Ovid Embase | AND (exp Animal/ NOT exp Mammal/) |
Search strategies extracted and adapted from:
Chilov M, Matsoukas K, Ispahany N, Allen TY, Lustbader JW. Using MeSH to search for alternatives to the use of animals in research. Med Ref Serv Q. 2007 Fall;26(3):55-74. doi: 10.1300/J115v26n03_04. PMID: 17915631
| Refinement Option #1: Broadly exploring refinement options |
Ovid MEDLINE | AND (exp Animal Welfare/ OR exp Animal Experimentation/ OR exp "Animal Use Alternatives"/) |
| PubMed MEDLINE | AND (Animal Welfare[Mesh] OR Animal Experimentation[Mesh] OR Animal Use Alternatives[Mesh]) | |
| Ovid Embase | AND (Animal Testing Alternative/ OR Animal Testing Refinement/ OR exp Animal Welfare/ | |
| Refinement Option #2: Substituting specific procedures (search terms will depend on your individual procedures) |
Ovid MEDLINE |
exp Surgical Procedures, Minimally Invasive Condition/Disease AND Intervention AND (exp Neoplasms, Experimental/ NOT exp Neoplasm Transplantation/) |
| PubMed MEDLINE |
Surgical Procedures, Minimally Invasive[Mesh] Condition/Disease AND Intervention AND (Neoplasms, Experimental[Mesh] NOT Neoplasm Transplantation[Mesh]) |
|
| Ovid Embase |
exp Minimally Invasive Surgery/ Condition/Disease AND Intervention AND (exp Experimental Neoplasm/ NOT Cancer Transplantation/) |
|
| Refinement Option #3: Improving procedures: use subheadings like Adverse Effects, Instrumentation, Methods, Rehabilitation to learn how other researchers are refining procedures. |
Ovid MEDLINE |
Animal AND Procedure/ae, is, mt, rh exp Mice/ AND exp Lymph Node Excision/mt |
| PubMed MEDLINE |
Animal AND Procedure/Adverse Effects, Instrumentation, Methods, Rehabilitation Mice[Mesh] AND Lymph Node Excision/methods[Mesh] |
|
| Ovid Embase | exp Mouse/ AND exp Lymph Node Dissection/ AND (exp Adverse Event/ OR exp Devices/ OR exp Rehabilitation/) | |
| Refinement Option #4: Reducing Pain and Distress |
Ovid MEDLINE | (exp Pain/ OR exp Pain Management/ OR exp "Anesthesia and Analgesia"/ OR exp Analgesics/ OR exp Anesthetics/ OR exp Stress, Psychological/ OR exp Stress, Physiological/ OR stress.ti,ab. OR distress.ti,ab. OR pain*.ti,ab. OR analgesia.ti,ab. OR analgesic*.ti,ab. OR anesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anaesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anesthetic*.ti,ab. OR anaesthetic*.ti,ab.) |
| PubMed MEDLINE | AND (Pain[Mesh] OR Pain Management[Mesh] OR "Anesthesia and Analgesia"[Mesh] OR Analgesics[Mesh] OR Analgesics[Pharmacological Action] OR Anesthetics[Mesh] OR Anesthetics[Pharmacological Action] OR Stress, Psychological[Mesh] OR Stress, Physiological[Mesh] OR stress[tiab] OR distress[tiab] OR pain*[tiab] OR analgesia[tiab] OR analgesic*[tiab] OR anesthesia*[tiab] OR anaesthesia*[tiab] OR anesthetic*[tiab] OR anaesthetic*[tiab]) | |
| Ovid Embase | (exp Pain/ OR exp Anesthesiological Procedure/ OR exp Analgesic Agent/ OR exp Anesthetic Agent/ OR exp Mental Stress/ OR exp Physiological Stress/ OR stress.ti,ab. OR distress.ti,ab. OR pain*.ti,ab. OR analgesia.ti,ab. OR analgesic*.ti,ab. OR anesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anaesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anesthetic*.ti,ab. OR anaesthetic*.ti,ab.) |