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The Graduate Health & Life Sciences Research Library at Georgetown University Medical Center

Searching for Animal Alternatives

Resource guide for helping members of the GUMC community comply with IACUC requirements and perform searches based on the 3Rs

Sample Searches from AWIC

"The search strategies below are provided as examples of how to structure a search. They are examples only and should not be interpreted as all inclusive, exact or the only way to retrieve information on the subject."

Search Strategy Articles

Create a My NCBI account to save searches and customize "filters." Learn more about filters from these articles:

Enhancing search efficiency by means of a search filter for finding all studies on animal experimentation in PubMed.
Lab Anim. 2010 Jul;44(3):170-5. doi: 10.1258/la.2010.009117. Epub 2010 Jun 15.
Hooijmans CR, Tillema A, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M.
Full-text PMC3104815; PMID: 20551243.

A step-by-step guide to systematically identify all relevant animal studies.
Lab Anim. 2012 Jan;46(1):24-31. doi: 10.1258/la.2011.011087. Epub 2011 Oct 28.
Leenaars M, Hooijmans CR, van Veggel N, ter Riet G, Leeflang M, Hooft L, van der Wilt GJ, Tillema A, Ritskes-Hoitinga M.
Full-text PMC3265183; PMID: 22037056.

A search filter for increasing the retrieval of animal studies in Embase.
Lab Anim. 2011 Oct;45(4):268-70. doi: 10.1258/la.2011.011056. Epub 2011 Sep 2.
de Vries RB, Hooijmans CR, Tillema A, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M.
Full-text PMC3175570; PMID: 21890653. (see also updated version)

General Subject Headings

Below are general subject headings that might help with broad searches.

MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) for MEDLINE:

EMTREE for Embase:

  • Animal Testing Alternative
    • Animal Testing Reduction
    • Animal Testing Refinement
    • Animal Testing Replacement
  • Animal Welfare

But, in order to perform a comprehensive search, incorporate the below keywords and associated MeSH that help to capture elements of the 3Rs.

Sample Keywords and MeSH for 3Rs Searching

Keywords Medical Subject Headings for MEDLINE, if available
adverse  
analgesia OR analgesic OR painkiller OR sedative OR tranquilize OR tranquilizer Analgesia OR Analgesics OR "Hypnotics and Sedatives" OR Tranquilizing Agents
anesthetic OR anasthetic OR anaesthetic Anesthetics
anxiolytic Anti-Anxiety Agents
(enrich OR enrichment) AND (behavioral OR behavioural OR environmental)  
euthanasia OR euthanize* Euthanasia, Animal OR Euthanasia
handling OR housing OR caging OR husbandry Animal Husbandry
invasive, non-invasive Minimally Invasive Surgical Procedures OR Diagnostic Imaging
monitoring device* Telemetry
restrain OR immobil* OR restrict Restraint, Physical OR Immobilization
positive reinforce* Reinforcement, Psychology
postoperative OR postsurgery OR postsurgical Postoperative Period OR Postoperative Complications OR Postoperative Care OR Pain, Postoperative
pain OR distress OR welfare Pain OR Pain Management OR Psychological Distress
reduce OR reduction OR refine OR refinement  
technique OR method OR procedur* OR assay  
train* OR educat* OR teach* OR instruct* Teaching OR Education OR Computer-Assisted Instruction

* denotes truncation symbol for keywords, which might differ depending on the database (*, !, $, etc.).

Keywords Medical Subject Headings for MEDLINE, if available
animal alternative OR animal alternatives Animal Testing Alternatives
artificial Artificial Intelligence OR Biomimetic Materials
cadaver OR cadavers Cadaver
Computer Simulation OR "in silico" Computer Simulation
culture* AND (cell OR tissue OR organ) Culture Techniques OR Cells, Culture
invertebrate* Invertebrates
isolated AND (cell OR tissue OR organ)  
mannequin OR manikin Manikins
(model OR modeling OR modelling) AND (cadaveric OR interactive OR mathematical OR statistical OR theoretical) (Models, Theoretical NOT Disease Models, Animal)
plastination OR plastinations Plastination
software Software
video Videotape Recording OR Video Recording
virtual AND (reality OR surgery) Virtual Reality OR Augmented Reality
vitro AND (method OR model OR technique) In Vitro Techniques

* denotes truncation symbol, which changes depending on the database (*, !, $, etc.).

Sample Strategies to Add to 3Rs Search

Replacement Option #1
to eliminate most animal and human studies

Ovid MEDLINE NOT (exp Animals/ OR exp Humans/)
PubMed MEDLINE NOT (Animals[Mesh] OR Humans[Mesh])
Ovid Embase NOT (exp Animal/ OR exp Human/)
Replacement Option #2 Ovid MEDLINE AND (exp Computer Simulation/ OR simulation.ti,ab. OR virtual reality.ti,ab. OR augmented reality.ti,ab. OR exp Cadaver/ OR cadaver.ti,ab. OR Aborted Fetus/ OR aborted fetus.ti,ab. OR exp In Vitro Techniques/ OR vitro.ti,ab. OR exp Cells, Cultured/ OR cultured cells.ti,ab. OR cell culture.ti,ab. OR Manikins/ OR manikins.ti,ab. OR mannequin.ti,ab. OR mannequins.ti,ab. OR Plastination/ OR plastination.ti,ab. OR (exp Models, Theoretical/ NOT exp Disease Models, Animal/))
PubMed MEDLINE AND (Computer Simulation[Mesh] OR simulation[tiab] OR "virtual reality"[tiab] OR "augmented reality"[tiab] OR Cadaver[Mesh] OR cadaver[tiab] OR Aborted Fetus[Mesh] OR "aborted fetus"[tiab] OR In Vitro Techniques[Mesh] OR vitro[tiab] OR Cells, Cultured[Mesh] OR "cultured cells"[tiab] OR "cell culture"[tiab] OR Manikins[Mesh] OR manikins[tiab] OR mannequin[tiab] OR mannequins[tiab] OR Plastination[Mesh] OR plastination[tiab] OR (Models, Theoretical[Mesh] NOT Disease Models, Animal[Mesh]))
Ovid Embase (exp Computer Simulation/ OR simulation.ti,ab. OR virtual reality.ti,ab. OR augmented reality.ti,ab. OR exp Cadaver/ OR cadaver.ti,ab. OR Fetus Death/ OR fetus death.ti,ab. OR exp In Vitro Study/ OR vitro.ti,ab. OR exp Cell Culture/ OR cultured cells.ti,ab. OR cell culture.ti,ab. OR exp Manikin/ OR manikins.ti,ab. OR mannequin.ti,ab. OR mannequins.ti,ab. OR Plastination/ OR plastination.ti,ab. OR (exp Model/ NOT exp Animal Model/))

Replacement Option #3
to look for "lower organisms"

Ovid MEDLINE AND (exp Animals/ NOT exp Mammals/)
PubMed MEDLINE AND (Animals[Mesh] NOT Mammals[Mesh])
Ovid Embase AND (exp Animal/ NOT exp Mammal/)

Search strategies extracted and adapted from:
Chilov M, Matsoukas K, Ispahany N, Allen TY, Lustbader JW. Using MeSH to search for alternatives to the use of animals in research. Med Ref Serv Q. 2007 Fall;26(3):55-74. doi: 10.1300/J115v26n03_04. PMID: 17915631

Refinement Option #1:
Broadly exploring refinement options
Ovid MEDLINE AND (exp Animal Welfare/ OR exp Animal Experimentation/ OR exp "Animal Use Alternatives"/)
PubMed MEDLINE AND (Animal Welfare[Mesh] OR Animal Experimentation[Mesh] OR Animal Use Alternatives[Mesh])
Ovid Embase AND (Animal Testing Alternative/ OR Animal Testing Refinement/ OR exp Animal Welfare/
Refinement Option #2:
Substituting specific procedures (search terms will depend on your individual procedures)
Ovid MEDLINE

exp Surgical Procedures, Minimally Invasive

Condition/Disease AND Intervention AND (exp Neoplasms, Experimental/ NOT exp Neoplasm Transplantation/)

PubMed MEDLINE

Surgical Procedures, Minimally Invasive[Mesh]

Condition/Disease AND Intervention AND (Neoplasms, Experimental[Mesh] NOT Neoplasm Transplantation[Mesh])

Ovid Embase

exp Minimally Invasive Surgery/

Condition/Disease AND Intervention AND (exp Experimental Neoplasm/ NOT Cancer Transplantation/)

Refinement Option #3:
Improving procedures: use subheadings like Adverse Effects, Instrumentation, Methods, Rehabilitation to learn how other researchers are refining procedures.
Ovid MEDLINE

Animal AND Procedure/ae, is, mt, rh

exp Mice/ AND exp Lymph Node Excision/mt

PubMed MEDLINE

Animal AND Procedure/Adverse Effects, Instrumentation, Methods, Rehabilitation

Mice[Mesh] AND Lymph Node Excision/methods[Mesh]

Ovid Embase exp Mouse/ AND exp Lymph Node Dissection/ AND (exp Adverse Event/ OR exp Devices/ OR exp Rehabilitation/)
Refinement Option #4:
Reducing Pain and Distress
Ovid MEDLINE (exp Pain/ OR exp Pain Management/ OR exp "Anesthesia and Analgesia"/ OR exp Analgesics/ OR exp Anesthetics/ OR exp Stress, Psychological/ OR exp Stress, Physiological/ OR stress.ti,ab. OR distress.ti,ab. OR pain*.ti,ab. OR analgesia.ti,ab. OR analgesic*.ti,ab. OR anesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anaesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anesthetic*.ti,ab. OR anaesthetic*.ti,ab.)
PubMed MEDLINE AND (Pain[Mesh] OR Pain Management[Mesh] OR "Anesthesia and Analgesia"[Mesh] OR Analgesics[Mesh] OR Analgesics[Pharmacological Action] OR Anesthetics[Mesh] OR Anesthetics[Pharmacological Action] OR Stress, Psychological[Mesh] OR Stress, Physiological[Mesh] OR stress[tiab] OR distress[tiab] OR pain*[tiab] OR analgesia[tiab] OR analgesic*[tiab] OR anesthesia*[tiab] OR anaesthesia*[tiab] OR anesthetic*[tiab] OR anaesthetic*[tiab])
Ovid Embase (exp Pain/ OR exp Anesthesiological Procedure/ OR exp Analgesic Agent/ OR exp Anesthetic Agent/ OR exp Mental Stress/ OR exp Physiological Stress/ OR stress.ti,ab. OR distress.ti,ab. OR pain*.ti,ab. OR analgesia.ti,ab. OR analgesic*.ti,ab. OR anesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anaesthesia*.ti,ab. OR anesthetic*.ti,ab. OR anaesthetic*.ti,ab.)